Notched implements made of scapulae (Bruszczewo-type tools)—A problem solved? Discovering cereal- and legume-threshing techniques in Early Bronze Age Europe through traceological analysis and residue studies

by Grzegorz Osipowicz, Justyna Orłowska, Emanuela Cristiani, Mariusz Bosiak, Lucy Kubiak-Martens, Janusz Czebreszuk, Daniel Makowiecki

The studies presented in this paper constitute the first scientific attempt to interpret the manner whereby notched implements made of scapulae were made and used. These implements have been found at numerous European and non-European sites, usually dated to the Neolithic–Early Iron Age (predominantly the Early Bronze Age). Research has examined these products since the beginning of the 20th century, resulting in the development of several hypotheses regarding their functions. This paper presents the analysis results of 41 such artefacts from the early Bronze Age defensive settlement in Bruszczewo (central Poland). This is the largest collection of these products from a single site worldwide. The artefacts were subjected to multi-aspect traceological tests (both technological and functional) using optical, metallographic, and scanning electron microscopes. The residues identified on their surfaces were analysed using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-rays spectroscopy. Moreover, the studies reported herein involved extensive experimental research. Consequently, the chain of operations followed in producing these tools was reconstructed and the use-wear traces present on their surfaces were classified; it was determined that these tools were most likely used for threshing cereals but might also have been used for threshing legumes. This is the first proof of threshing in central Europe in the Early Bronze Age and the first scientifically substantiated hypothesis regarding the function of these important artefacts.